Post Category → Cardiology

Lower Extremity Edema Ultrasound

Brief H&P:

Ultrasound image of heart with depressed ejection fraction

Depressed ejection fraction, image from The POCUS Atlas

An 44 year-old male with no reported medical history (though limited access to medical care) presents with lower extremity swelling. He states that the symptoms have been gradually worsening over the past 3 months. He notes occasional fatigue while at work but denies chest pain, shortness of breath, leg pain or changes in urination.

A point-of-care ultrasound is performed showing decreased left ventricular ejection fraction. The patient was admitted for further evaluation and management of new-onset congestive heart failure.

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Lower Extremity Edema with Ultrasound

An algorithm for the evaluation of lower extremity edema with ultrasound

Gallery

The POCUS Atlas
The ultrasound images and videos used in this post come from The POCUS Atlas, a collaborative collection focusing on rare, exotic and perfectly captured ultrasound images.
The POCUS Atlas
Nodular liver contour, ascites

Nodular liver contour, ascites

Ascites

Ascites

Cobblestoning

Cobblestoning

Cobblestoning

Cobblestoning

Longitudinal view of a ruptured Baker cyst

Longitudinal view of a ruptured Baker cyst

References

  1. Trayes KP, Studdiford JS, Pickle S, Tully AS. Edema: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2013;88(2):102-110.
  2. Goyal A, Cusick AS, Bhutta BS. Peripheral Edema. [Updated 2022 Nov 19]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554452/
  3. Smith, C. Clinical manifestations and evaluation of edema in adults. Post TW, ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. http://www.uptodate.com. Accessed 2/11/2023.
This algorithm was developed by Dr. Huakang Huang. Huakang is an emergency medicine resident at UTHealth Houston.

LVAD

Brief H&P:

A 48 year-old male with a history of congestive heart failure s/p left ventricular assist device is brought in by EMS with low-flow alarms. According to prehospital report, the patient had otherwise been in his usual state of health and had been shocked by his ICD multiple times prior to their arrival. No vital signs could be obtained en route.

On arrival in the emergency department, the patient was awake and responding appropriately to questions. His MAP was 80mmHg, an audible whir was auscultated from his device and the skin surrounding the percutaneous exit site appeared normal.

ECG

ECG with Ventricular Fibrillation

POCUS

Ultrasound showing parasternal long axis view of fibrillating heart

The patient’s device was inactivated with a magnet to prevent further ineffectual shocks. An arterial line was placed for continuous blood pressure measurement. He was sedated and externally defibrillated with return to normal sinus rhythm prior to admission to the CCU.

An Algorithm for the Evaluation of Unstable LVAD1

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Unstable LVAD

Reference

Stenberg R, Shenvi C. Targeted evaluation of patients with left ventricular assist devices and shock or hypotension. Ann Emerg Med. 2020;76(1):34-41.

Pericardial Effusion

HPI:

43F with a history of HTN and diastolic heart failure presenting with two days of shortness of breath. Reports that symptoms are worse at night when lying down to sleep and associated with a cough productive of white sputum. She also reports intermittent left-sided chest pain, described as sharp and exacerbated by cough or deep inspiration. She denies fevers/chills, nausea/vomiting, sick contacts or recent travel.
m

PMH:

  • Hypertension
  • Diabetes Mellitus (Type II)
  • Hyperlipidemia
  • Diastolic heart failure

PSH:

  • Cesarean section

FH:

  • Father with MI at 76 years-old

SHx:

  • Lives at home.
  • Denies tobacco, alcohol or drug abuse.

Meds:

  • Lasix 40mg p.o. daily
  • Lisinopril 20mg p.o. daily
  • Atenolol 50mg p.o. daily
  • Omeprazole 20mg p.o. daily
  • Lantus 14 units daily
  • Novolin 6 units t.i.d

Allergies:

NKDA

Physical Exam:

VS: T 98.2 HR 81 RR 19 BP 219/91 O2 95% RA
Gen: Adult female in no acute distress, alert and responding appropriately to questions.
HEENT: PERRL, EOMI, mucous membranes moist.
CV: RRR, no murmurs appreciated, no JVD.
Lungs: Crackles at right lung base.
Abd: Soft, non-tender, non-distended, without rebound/guarding.
Ext: 1+ pitting edema in bilateral lower extremities to knee.
Neuro: AAOx4, grossly normal peripheral sensation and motor strength.

Labs/Studies:

  • Troponin: 0.15
  • Procalcitonin: 0.15
  • CBC: 10.9/9.1/26.4/296
  • BMP: 134/4.6/104/22/56/2.87/214

Imaging:

Pericardial Effusion

Pericardial Effusion

Measured in the largest dimension, suggestive of a moderate to large pericardial effusion.

E-Point Septal Separation

E-Point Septal Separation

E-Point Septal Separation (EPSS), estimated here is the smallest distance between the anterior leaflet of the mitral valve and intraventricular septum. Values > 12mm are suggestive of depressed ejection fraction.

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy

Thickened left ventricular wall.

Pericardial Effusion - Subxiphoid

Pericardial Effusion - Subxiphoid

Pericardial Effusion - Parasternal Long

Pericardial Effusion - Parasternal Long

Pericardial Effusion - Parasternal Short

Pericardial Effusion - Parasternal Short

  • CXR: Consolidation involving the majority of the right lung, cardiomegaly.
  • Bedside Echo: LVEF 55%, concentric LVH, no wall motion abnormality, moderate pericardial effusion noted, RV not collapsed.

Assessment/Plan:

43F with a history of HTN, diastolic heart failure presenting with SOB.

#SOB: CXR finding of right-sided consolidation with history of productive cough, evidence of leukocytosis with neutrophil predominance, and relative hypoxemia suggestive of community-acquired pneumonia. No evidence of systemic inflammatory response. PE unlikely, patient is not bed-bound and alternative diagnosis more likely.
– Start empiric antimicrobial therapy ceftriaxone 1g IV q24h, azithromycin 500mg IV q24h.

#Pericardial Effusion: Noted on bedside echo, no evidence of RV collapse to suggest cardiac tamponade. Also, no JVD and pulsus paradoxus measured at 8mmHg.
– Obtain formal transthoracic echocardiogram to evaluate effusion.
– Consult cardiology if worsening hemodynamics

#Elevated Troponin: No ECG changes suggestive of acute ST-elevation MI. May represent NSTEMI though historical features not consistent with ACS.
– Trend troponin/EKG q.8.h. x3
– Give aspirin 325mg, consider anti-coagulation.
– Consider stress echo prior to discharge

#Elevated Creatinine: Baseline unknown, likely acute component with or without chronic kidney disease.
– Volume resuscitation as tolerated, follow repeat chemistry.

#Hypertension: Asymptomatic, resume home medications.

Physiology of Cardiac Tamponade 1

  • Intrapericardial pressure (IPP) normally reflects intrathoracic pressure (ITP).
  • Inspiration: low ITP → low RAP → increased RA filling.
  • Expiration: high ITP → low LAP → increased LA filling.
  • Increased pericardial fluid → increased IPP → increased LA/RA filling pressures (diastolic dysfunction) → increased variation with respiration.
  • Earliest hemodynamic change in cardiac tamponade is JVD or IVC dilation.

IVC variation as marker for RAP 1

IVC Diameter (cm) Change with Respiration (%) RAP (mmHg)
<2.1 >50% 0-5
<2.1 <50% 5-10
>2.1 >50% 5-10
>2.1 <50% >15

Grading Pericardial Effusions 1

Grade Echo-free space (mm) Size (mL)
Small <10 100
Moderate 10-20 100-500
Large >20 >500

History and Physical Exam in Patients with Acute Pericarditis 2,3

Symptom/Sign ACS Pericarditis PE
Quality Pressure Sharp Sharp
Pleuritic No Yes Yes
Positional No Yes (worse when supine) No
Duration Minutes to hours Hours to days Hours to days
Improves with NG Yes No No
Friction Rub No Yes No
S3 Maybe No No

Differential Diagnosis of Pericardial Effusion 2-8

Differential Diagnosis of Pericardial Effusion

References:

  1. Schairer, J. R., Biswas, S., Keteyian, S. J., & Ananthasubramaniam, K. (2011). A Systematic Approach to Evaluation of Pericardial Effusion and Cardiac Tamponade. Cardiology in Review, 19(5), 233–238. doi:10.1097/CRD.0b013e31821e202c
  2. Khandaker MH, Espinosa RE, Nishimura RA, et al. Pericardial Disease: Diagnosis and Management. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 2010;85(6):572-593. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0046.
  3. Lange, RA, Hillis, LD. Clinical practice. Acute pericarditis. The New England journal of medicine. 2004;351(21), 2195–2202. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp041997
  4. Imazio M, Adler Y. Management of pericardial effusion. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(16):1186-1197. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs372.
  5. LeWinter MM. Clinical practice. Acute pericarditis. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(25):2410-2416. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1404070.
  6. Vakamudi S, Ho N, Cremer PC. Pericardial Effusions: Causes, Diagnosis, and Management. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2017;59(4):380-388. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2016.12.009.
  7. Imazio M, Mayosi BM, Brucato A, et al. Triage and management of pericardial effusion. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown). 2010;11(12):928-935. doi:10.2459/JCM.0b013e32833e5788.
  8. Maisch B, Seferović PM, Ristić AD, et al. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases executive summary; The Task force on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases of the European society of cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2004;25(7):587-610. doi:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.02.002.

Low Voltage ECG

Definition

  • QRS in limb leads <5mm
  • QRS in precordial leads <10mm

General Causes

  • Fluid, fat or air attenuating signal
  • Myocardial infiltration
  • Loss of viable myocardium

Example

Low Voltage ECG
Low Voltage ECG

Low Voltage ECG

ECG of patient with pericardial effusion

Baseline ECG
Baseline ECG

Baseline ECG

Old ECG from same patient

Differential Diagnosis of Low Voltage ECG

Differential Diagnosis of Low-Voltage ECG

References

  1. Madias JE. Low QRS voltage and its causes. J Electrocardiol. 2008;41(6):498–500. doi:10.1016/j.jelectrocard.2008.06.021.
  2. WikEM: Low ECG voltage

Palpitations

Brief H&P

48F with a history of Grave disease (off medications for 4 months), presenting with palpitations. Noted gradual onset of palpitations while at rest, describing a pounding sensation lasting 3-4 hours and persistent (though improved) on presentation. Symptoms not associated with chest pain, shortness of breath, loss of consciousness, nor triggered by exertion. She reported a history of 8-10 episodes in the past for which she did not seek medical attention. Review of systems notable only for heat intolerance.

On physical examination, vital signs were notable for tachycardia (HR 138bpm). No alteration in mental status, murmur, tremor or hyperreflexia appreciated.

Labs

  • Hb: 14.7
  • Urine hCG: negative
  • TSH: <0.01
  • Total T3: 311ng/dL
  • Free T4: 2.64ng/dL

ECG

Palpitations - Sinus Tachycardia

Sinus Tachycardia

Impression/Plan

Palpitations due to sinus tachycardia from symptomatic hyperthyroidism secondary to medication non-adherence. Improved with propranolol, discharged with methimazole and PMD follow-up.

Algorithm for the Evaluation and Management of Palpitations1, 2

Algorithm for the Evaluation and Management of Palpitations

Evaluation of Palpitations

History and Physical

Subjective description of symptom quality
Rapid and regular beating suggests paroxysmal SVT or VT. Rapid and irregular beating suggests atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, or variable conduction block.
Stop/start sensation: PAC or PVC
Rapid fluttering: Sustained supraventricular or ventricular tachycardia
Pounding in neck: Produced by canon A waves from AV dissociation (VT, complete heart block, SVT)
Onset and offset
Random, episodic, lasting instants: Suggests PAC or PVC
Gradual onset and offset: Sinus tachycardia
Abrupt onset and offset: SVT or VT
Syncope
Suggests hemodynamically significant arrhythmia, often VT
Examination
Identify evidence of structural, valvular heart disease

ECG1

ECG Finding Presumed etiology
Short PR, Delta waves WPW, AVRT
LAA, LVH Atrial fibrillation
PVC, BBB Idiopathic VT
Q-waves Prior MI, VT
QT-prolongation VT (polymorphic)
LVH, septal Q-waves HCM
Blocks  

References

  1. Zimetbaum P, Josephson ME. Evaluation of patients with palpitations. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(19):1369-1373. doi:10.1056/NEJM199805073381907.
  2. Probst MA, Mower WR, Kanzaria HK, Hoffman JR, Buch EF, Sun BC. Analysis of emergency department visits for palpitations (from the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey). The American Journal of Cardiology. 2014;113(10):1685-1690. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.02.020.
  3. Abbott AV. Diagnostic approach to palpitations. Am Fam Physician. 2005;71(4):743-750.

Cardiac Arrest

Brief HPI:

An overhead page alerts you to an arriving patient with cardiac arrest. An approximately 35-year-old male was running away from police officers and collapsed after being shot with a stun gun. The patient was found to be pulseless, CPR was started by police officers and the patient is en route.

An Algorithm for the Evaluation and Management of Cardiac Arrest with Ultrasonography

An Algorithm for the Evaluation and Management of Cardiac Arrest with Ultrasonography

Causes of Cardiac (and non-cardiac) Arrest

Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) leading to sudden cardiac death (SCD) if not successfully resuscitated, refers to the unexpected collapse of circulatory function. Available epidemiologic data for in-hospital and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) point appropriately to cardiac processes as the most common cause, though extra-cardiac processes (most frequently respiratory), comprise up to 40% of cases1-3.

Identifying the underlying cause is critical as several reversible precipitants require rapid identification. However, the usual diagnostic techniques may be challenging, limited or absent – including patient history, detailed examination, and diagnostic studies.

The initial rhythm detected upon evaluation is most suggestive of the etiologic precipitant. Pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pVT) or ventricular fibrillation (VF) is suggestive of a cardiac process – most commonly an acute coronary syndrome although heart failure or other structural and non-structural heart defects associated with dysrhythmias may be at fault4.

Pulseless electrical activity (PEA) presents a broader differential diagnosis as it essentially represents severe shock. The most common extra-cardiac cause is hypoxia – commonly secondary to pulmonary processes including small and large airway obstruction (bronchospasm, aspiration, foreign body, edema). Other causes include substance intoxication, medication adverse effect5,6, or electrolyte disturbances7. Finally, any precipitant of shock may ultimately lead to PEA, including hypovolemia/hemorrhage, obstruction (massive pulmonary embolus8, tamponade, tension pneumothorax), and distribution (sepsis).

Asystole is the absence of even disorganized electrical discharge and is the terminal degeneration of any of the previously-mentioned rhythms if left untreated.

Management of Cardiac Arrest

Optimizing survival outcomes in patients with cardiac arrest is dependent on early resuscitation with the prioritization of interventions demonstrated to have survival benefit. When advanced notice is available, prepare the resuscitation area including airway equipment (with adjuncts to assist ventilation and waveform capnography devices). Adopt the leadership position and assign roles for chest compressions, airway support, application of monitor/defibrillator, and establishment of peripheral access.

High-quality chest compressions with minimal interruptions are the foundation of successful resuscitation – and guideline changes prioritizing compressions have demonstrated detectable improvements in rates of successful resuscitation9,10. Measurement of quantitative end-tidal capnography can guide adequacy of chest compressions11,12 and an abrupt increase may signal restoration of circulation without necessitating interruptions of chest compressions13,14. Sustained, low measures of end-tidal CO2 despite appropriate resuscitation may signal futility and (alongside other factors) guides termination of resuscitation11,12.

The next critical step in restoring circulation is prompt defibrillation of eligible rhythms (pVT/VF) when detected. The immediate delivery of 200J (uptitrated to the device maximum for subsequent shocks) of biphasic energy and restoration of a perfusing rhythm is one of few interventions with clear benefits. For pVT/VF that persists despite multiple countershocks (more than three), the addition of an intravenous antiarrhythmic appears to improve survival to hospital admission. The ARREST trial was a randomized controlled study comparing amiodarone to its diluent as placebo for OHCA with refractory pVT/VF showing significant improvement in survival to hospital admission for the amiodarone group15. This was followed by the ALIVE trial comparing amiodarone and lidocaine which showed significantly higher rates of survival to hospital admission in the amiodarone group16. However, a more recent randomized trial comparing amiodarone (in a novel diluent less likely to cause hypotension), lidocaine, and placebo in a similar patient population showed less convincing results, with no detected difference in survival or the secondary outcome of favorable neurological outcome for either amiodarone or lidocaine compared with placebo17. The heterogeneity of available data contributed to current guidelines which recommend that either amiodarone or lidocaine may be used for shock-refractory pVT/VF18.

Current guidelines also recommend the administration of vasopressors (epinephrine 1mg every 3-5 minutes). In one randomized controlled trial exploring the long-standing guideline recommendations, epinephrine was associated with increased rates of restoration of spontaneous circulation, though no significant impact on the primary outcome of survival to hospital discharge was identified19. Physiologically, increased systemic vascular resistance combined with positive beta-adrenergic impact on cardiac output would be expected to complement resuscitative efforts. However, more recent studies have suggested that arrest physiology and unanticipated pharmacologic effects may complicate this simplistic interpretation – particularly when patient-centered outcomes are emphasized. Research exploring the timing and amount of epinephrine suggest that earlier administration and higher cumulative doses are associated with negative impacts on survival to hospital discharge and favorable neurological outcomes20-22.

Ultimately, treatment should focus on optimal execution of measures with clear benefits (namely chest compressions and early defibrillation of eligible rhythms). Other management considerations with which the emergency physician is familiar with including establishing peripheral access and definitive airway management can be delayed.

Rapid Diagnostic Measures for the Identification of Reversible Processes

Traditional diagnostic measures are generally unavailable during an ongoing cardiac arrest resuscitation. The emergency medicine physician must rely on the physical examination and point-of-care tests with the objective of identifying potentially reversible processes. Measurement of capillary blood glucose can exclude hypoglycemia as a contributor. Point-of-care chemistry and blood gas analyzers can identify important electrolyte derangements, as well as clarifying the primary impulse in acid-base disturbances.

End-tidal capnography was discussed previously for the guidance of ongoing resuscitation, but it may have diagnostic utility in patients with SCD. In one study the initial EtCO2 was noted to be significantly higher for primary pulmonary processes (with PEA/asystole as presenting rhythm) compared to primary cardiac processes (with pVT/VF as presenting rhythm)23.

The use of point-of-care ultrasonography, particularly in PEA arrest where non-cardiac etiologies dominate, may help identify the etiology of arrest and direct therapy. Bedside ultrasonography should be directed first at assessment of cardiac function – examining the pericardial sac and gross abnormalities in chamber size. A pericardial effusion may suggest cardiac tamponade, ventricular collapse can be seen with hypovolemia, and asymmetric right-ventricular dilation points to pulmonary embolus where thrombolysis should be considered8. If cardiac ultrasound is unrevealing, thoracic ultrasound can identify pneumothorax24-27.

In the absence of ultrasonographic abnormalities, attention turns to other rapidly reversible precipitants first. If opioid toxicity is a consideration, an attempt at reversal with naloxone has few adverse effects. If any detected rhythm is a polymorphic ventricular tachycardia characteristic of torsades de pointes – rapid infusion of magnesium sulfate should follow defibrillation. Other potentially reversible medications or toxins should be managed as appropriate.

Post-Resuscitation Steps

After successful restoration of circulation, the next management steps are critical to the patient’s long-term outcomes. A definitive airway should be established if not already secured (and if restoration of circulation was not associated with neurological recovery sufficient for independent airway protection). Circulatory support should continue with fluid resuscitation and vasopressors to maintain end-organ perfusion.

An immediate ECG should be performed to identify infarction, ischemia or precipitants of dysrhythmia. ST-segment elevation after return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) warrants emergent angiography and possible intervention. However, given the prevalence of cardiac causes (of which coronary disease is most common) for patients with pVT/VF arrest, the presence of ST elevations is likely of insufficient sensitivity to identify all patients who would benefit from angiography. Several studies and meta-analyses have explored a more inclusive selection strategy for angiography (patients without obvious non-cardiac causes for arrest), all of which identified survival benefits with angiography and successful angioplasty when possible28-30.

Finally, the induction of hypothermia (or targeted temperature management) has significant benefits in survivors of cardiac arrest and can be instituted in the emergency department. Studies first targeted a core temperature of 32-24°C, with a randomized controlled trial demonstrating higher rates of favorable neurological outcome and reduced mortality31. More recent studies suggest that a more liberal temperature target does not diffuse the positive effects of induced hypothermia. A randomized trial of 939 patients with OHCA comparing a targeted temperature of 33°C vs 36°C suggested that a lower temperature target did not confer higher benefit to mortality or recovery of neurological function32. The more liberal temperature target may alleviate adverse effects associated with hypothermia which include cardiovascular effects (bradycardia), electrolyte derangements (during induction and rewarming), and possible increased risk of infections33. Targeted temperature management is achieved with external cooling measures or infusion of cooled fluids, rarely requiring more invasive measures34. Aggregate review of available data in a recent meta-analysis further supports the use of targeted temperature management after cardiac arrest as standard-of-care35.

References

  1. Bergum D, Nordseth T, Mjølstad OC, Skogvoll E, Haugen BO. Causes of in-hospital cardiac arrest – Incidences and rate of recognition. Resuscitation. 2015;87:63-68. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2014.11.007.
  2. Wallmuller C, Meron G, Kurkciyan I, Schober A, Stratil P, Sterz F. Causes of in-hospital cardiac arrest and influence on outcome. Resuscitation. 2012;83(10):1206-1211. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2012.05.001.
  3. Vaartjes I, Hendrix A, Hertogh EM, et al. Sudden death in persons younger than 40 years of age: incidence and causes. European Journal of Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation. 2009;16(5):592-596. doi:10.1097/HJR.0b013e32832d555b.
  4. Zheng ZJ, Croft JB, Giles WH, Mensah GA. Sudden cardiac death in the United States, 1989 to 1998. Circulation. 2001;104(18):2158-2163.
  5. Hoes AW, Grobbee DE, Lubsen J, Man in ‘t Veld AJ, van der Does E, Hofman A. Diuretics, beta-blockers, and the risk for sudden cardiac death in hypertensive patients. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123(7):481-487.
  6. Siscovick DS, Raghunathan TE, Psaty BM, et al. Diuretic therapy for hypertension and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(26):1852-1857. doi:10.1056/NEJM199406303302603.
  7. Gettes LS. Electrolyte abnormalities underlying lethal and ventricular arrhythmias. Circulation. 1992;85(1 Suppl):I70-I76.
  8. Kürkciyan I, Meron G, Sterz F, et al. Pulmonary embolism as a cause of cardiac arrest: presentation and outcome. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(10):1529-1535.
  9. Callaway CW, Soar J, Aibiki M, et al. Part 4: Advanced Life Support: 2015 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. In: Vol 132. American Heart Association, Inc.; 2015:S84-S145. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000273.
  10. Kudenchuk PJ, Redshaw JD, Stubbs BA, et al. Impact of changes in resuscitation practice on survival and neurological outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resulting from nonshockable arrhythmias. Circulation. 2012;125(14):1787-1794. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.064873.
  11. Touma O, Davies M. The prognostic value of end tidal carbon dioxide during cardiac arrest: a systematic review. Resuscitation. 2013;84(11):1470-1479. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.07.011.
  12. Levine RL, Wayne MA, Miller CC. End-tidal carbon dioxide and outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 1997;337(5):301-306. doi:10.1056/NEJM199707313370503.
  13. Garnett AR, Ornato JP, Gonzalez ER, Johnson EB. End-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA. 1987;257(4):512-515.
  14. Falk JL, Rackow EC, Weil MH. End-tidal carbon dioxide concentration during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. N Engl J Med. 1988;318(10):607-611. doi:10.1056/NEJM198803103181005.
  15. Kudenchuk PJ, Cobb LA, Copass MK, et al. Amiodarone for resuscitation after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest due to ventricular fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(12):871-878. doi:10.1056/NEJM199909163411203.
  16. Dorian P, Cass D, Schwartz B, Cooper R, Gelaznikas R, Barr A. Amiodarone as compared with lidocaine for shock-resistant ventricular fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(12):884-890. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa013029.
  17. Kudenchuk PJ, Brown SP, Daya M, et al. Amiodarone, Lidocaine, or Placebo in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(18):1711-1722. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1514204.
  18. Neumar RW, Shuster M, Callaway CW, et al. Part 1: Executive Summary: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. In: Vol 132. American Heart Association, Inc.; 2015:S315-S367. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000252.
  19. Jacobs IG, Finn JC, Jelinek GA, Oxer HF, Thompson PL. Effect of adrenaline on survival in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Resuscitation. 2011;82(9):1138-1143. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2011.06.029.
  20. Hagihara A, Hasegawa M, Abe T, Nagata T, Wakata Y, Miyazaki S. Prehospital epinephrine use and survival among patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA. 2012;307(11):1161-1168. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.294.
  21. Dumas F, Bougouin W, Geri G, et al. Is epinephrine during cardiac arrest associated with worse outcomes in resuscitated patients? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(22):2360-2367. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2014.09.036.
  22. Andersen LW, Kurth T, Chase M, et al. Early administration of epinephrine (adrenaline) in patients with cardiac arrest with initial shockable rhythm in hospital: propensity score matched analysis. BMJ. 2016;353:i1577. doi:10.1136/bmj.i1577.
  23. Grmec S, Lah K, Tusek-Bunc K. Difference in end-tidal CO2 between asphyxia cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation/pulseless ventricular tachycardia cardiac arrest in the prehospital setting. Crit Care. 2003;7(6):R139-R144. doi:10.1186/cc2369.
  24. Rose JS, Bair AE, Mandavia D, Kinser DJ. The UHP ultrasound protocol: a novel ultrasound approach to the empiric evaluation of the undifferentiated hypotensive patient. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2001;19(4):299-302. doi:10.1053/ajem.2001.24481.
  25. Hernandez C, Shuler K, Hannan H, Sonyika C, Likourezos A, Marshall J. C.A.U.S.E.: Cardiac arrest ultra-sound exam—A better approach to managing patients in primary non-arrhythmogenic cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2008;76(2):198-206. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2007.06.033.
  26. Chardoli M, Heidari F, Shuang-ming S, et al. Echocardiography integrated ACLS protocol versus con- ventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation in patients with pulseless electrical activity cardiac arrest. Chinese Journal of Traumatology. 2012;15(5):284-287. doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.1008-1275.2012.05.005.
  27. Zengin S, Yavuz E, Al B, et al. Benefits of cardiac sonography performed by a non-expert sonographer in patients with non-traumatic cardiopulmonary arrest. Resuscitation. 2016;102:105-109. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.02.025.
  28. Spaulding CM, Joly LM, Rosenberg A, et al. Immediate coronary angiography in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(23):1629-1633. doi:10.1056/NEJM199706053362302.
  29. Dumas F, Cariou A, Manzo-Silberman S, et al. Immediate Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Is Associated With Better Survival After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest: Insights From the PROCAT (Parisian Region Out of Hospital Cardiac Arrest) Registry. Circulation: Cardiovascular Interventions. 2010;3(3):200-207. doi:10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.109.913665.
  30. Millin MG, Comer AC, Nable JV, et al. Patients without ST elevation after return of spontaneous circulation may benefit from emergent percutaneous intervention: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2016;108:54-60. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.09.004.
  31. Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(8):549-556. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa012689.
  32. Nielsen N, Wetterslev J, Cronberg T, et al. Targeted Temperature Management at 33°C versus 36°C after Cardiac Arrest. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(23):2197-2206. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1310519.
  33. Polderman KH, Peerdeman SM, Girbes AR. Hypophosphatemia and hypomagnesemia induced by cooling in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 2001;94(5):697-705. doi:10.3171/jns.2001.94.5.0697.
  34. Polderman KH, Herold I. Therapeutic hypothermia and controlled normothermia in the intensive care unit: Practical considerations, side effects, and cooling methods*. Critical Care Medicine. 2009;37(3):1101-1120. doi:10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181962ad5.
  35. Schenone AL, Cohen A, Patarroyo G, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest: A systematic review/meta-analysis exploring the impact of expanded criteria and targeted temperature. Resuscitation. 2016;108:102-110. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2016.07.238.

Atrial Fibrillation

A 64-year-old male with a history of hypertension and hyperlipidemia presents with palpitations. He reports intermittent symptoms over the past 3 days, associated with dyspnea on exertion, but no chest pain, dizziness or syncope. His vital signs are notable for tachycardia (HR 129bpm) without hypotension or hypoxia. An ECG shows atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response.

Evaluation and Management

While the patient’s tachyarrhythmia is not yet associated with hypotension or evidence of malperfusion, preparation is key and includes continuous telemetry and vital sign monitoring, establishment of intravenous access, and application of cardioversion pads 1.

The presence of atrial fibrillation is new and the rapid ventricular response (RVR) may be symptomatic of more serious and potentially reversible pathology. A thorough history and physical examination may elucidate a precipitant and should precede attempts at rate- or rhythm-control. RVR may be provoked by any of the processes that would otherwise induce a sinus tachycardia, including bleeding, infection, toxic/metabolic etiologies and endocrinopathies 2, 3

Candidacy for Cardioversion

In hemodynamically stable patients with new-onset atrial fibrillation, candidacy for cardioversion includes:4-6

  • Stable without ischemia, hypotension or acute CHF
  • Clear onset of <48 hours
  • Non-severe symptoms
  • Few prior episodes/treatments
  • Existing anti-coagulation with warfarin and therapeutic INR (at least 3 weeks)
  • Absence of high-risk features: rheumatic/valvular disease, severe left-ventricular dysfunction, prosthetic valves, or history of thromboembolism

Cardioversion may be pharmacologic (with procainamide, or amiodarone), or electrical (synchronized at 100-200J). Electrical cardioversion for acute atrial fibrillation is both more effective and results in shorter lengths-of-stay in the emergency department – though stable patients should participate in shared decision-making7. Another important consideration when cardioversion is pursued is the prevention of systemic embolization. While atrial fibrillation of duration less than 48-hours is rarely associated with systemic embolization, certain populations are at higher risk8. One retrospective study of 3143 patients with atrial fibrillation for less than 48-hours demonstrated an overall risk of 0.7% for thromboembolic events – though the rate was significantly higher in patients older than 60 years or with other comorbidities (heart failure, diabetes)9. The risk of embolic events should be weighed against the risk of bleeding.

CHA2DS2VASc10-12

C Congestive Heart Failure 1
H Hypertension 1
A2 Age >75 2
D Diabetes Mellitus 1
S2 Stroke, TIA, Thromboembolism 2
V Vascular disease 1
A Age >65 1
Sc Sex Category Female 1

 

  • 0: low risk (may not require anti-coagulation)
  • 1: low-moderate risk (consider anti-platelet or anti-coagulation)
  • ≥ 2: moderate-high risk (anti-coagulation recommended)

HAS-BLED13,14

H Uncontrolled hypertension 1
A Abnormal renal/liver function
Renal (renal replacement therapy, creatinine >2.3mg/dL) 1
Liver (cirrhosis, bilirubin >2x, AST/ALT >3x) 1
S Stroke 1
B Bleeding history/anemia 1
L Labile INR 1
E Elderly (>65) 1
D Drugs
Anti-platelet agent, NSAID 1
Alcohol (>8 drinks/week) 1

 

  • 0: low risk (0.6-1.13% annual risk of major bleeding)
  • 1-2: intermediate risk (1.02-3.2% annual risk of major bleeding)
  • ≥ 3: high risk (4.9-19.6% annual risk of major bleeding)

Pharmacologic Management

For patients who are not candidates for cardioversion, rate-control should be pursued. Options include AV nodal blocking agents such as calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers15. The most frequently studied agents of each category are metoprolol and diltiazem. Both classes show comparable efficacy and safety profiles with trends favoring diltiazem16, 17.

Algorithm for the management of atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response:

Algorithm for the management of atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular response

References

  1. Atzema, C.L. and T.W. Barrett, Managing atrial fibrillation. Ann Emerg Med, 2015. 65(5): p. 532-9.
  2. January, C.T., et al., 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation: Executive Summary. A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society, 2014. 64(21): p. 2246-2280.
  3. Scheuermeyer, F.X., et al., Emergency Department Patients With Atrial Fibrillation or Flutter and an Acute Underlying Medical Illness May Not Benefit From Attempts to Control Rate or Rhythm. Ann Emerg Med, 2015. 65(5): p. 511-522 e2.
  4. Stiell, I.G., et al., Association of the Ottawa Aggressive Protocol with rapid discharge of emergency department patients with recent-onset atrial fibrillation or flutter. CJEM, 2010. 12(3): p. 181-91.
  5. von Besser, K. and A.M. Mills, Is discharge to home after emergency department cardioversion safe for the treatment of recent-onset atrial fibrillation? Ann Emerg Med, 2011. 58(6): p. 517-20.
  6. Cohn, B.G., S.M. Keim, and D.M. Yealy, Is emergency department cardioversion of recent-onset atrial fibrillation safe and effective? J Emerg Med, 2013. 45(1): p. 117-27.
  7. Bellone, A., et al., Cardioversion of acute atrial fibrillation in the emergency department: a prospective randomised trial. Emerg Med J, 2012. 29(3): p. 188-91.
  8. Weigner, M.J., et al., Risk for clinical thromboembolism associated with conversion to sinus rhythm in patients with atrial fibrillation lasting less than 48 hours. Ann Intern Med, 1997. 126(8): p. 615-20.
  9. Airaksinen, K.E., et al., Thromboembolic complications after cardioversion of acute atrial fibrillation: the FinCV (Finnish CardioVersion) study. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2013. 62(13): p. 1187-92.
  10. Friberg, L., M. Rosenqvist, and G.Y. Lip, Evaluation of risk stratification schemes for ischaemic stroke and bleeding in 182 678 patients with atrial fibrillation: the Swedish Atrial Fibrillation cohort study. Eur Heart J, 2012. 33(12): p. 1500-10.
  11. Lip, G.Y., et al., Refining clinical risk stratification for predicting stroke and thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation using a novel risk factor-based approach: the euro heart survey on atrial fibrillation. Chest, 2010. 137(2): p. 263-72.
  12. Ntaios, G., et al., CHADS(2), CHA(2)S(2)DS(2)-VASc, and long-term stroke outcome in patients without atrial fibrillation. Neurology, 2013. 80(11): p. 1009-17.
  13. Lip, G.Y., et al., Comparative validation of a novel risk score for predicting bleeding risk in anticoagulated patients with atrial fibrillation: the HAS-BLED (Hypertension, Abnormal Renal/Liver Function, Stroke, Bleeding History or Predisposition, Labile INR, Elderly, Drugs/Alcohol Concomitantly) score. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2011. 57(2): p. 173-80.
  14. Pisters, R., et al., A novel user-friendly score (HAS-BLED) to assess 1-year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: the Euro Heart Survey. Chest, 2010. 138(5): p. 1093-100.
  15. Goralnick, E. and L.J. Bontempo, Atrial Fibrillation. Emerg Med Clin North Am, 2015. 33(3): p. 597-612.
  16. Demircan, C., et al., Comparison of the effectiveness of intravenous diltiazem and metoprolol in the management of rapid ventricular rate in atrial fibrillation. Emerg Med J, 2005. 22(6): p. 411-4.
  17. Fromm, C., et al., Diltiazem vs. Metoprolol in the Management of Atrial Fibrillation or Flutter with Rapid Ventricular Rate in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med, 2015. 49(2): p. 175-82.
  18. DiMarco, J.P., Atrial fibrillation and acute decompensated heart failure. Circ Heart Fail, 2009. 2(1): p. 72-3.

Wide-complex Tachycardia

Several algorithms exist for the electrocardigraphic evaluation of regular, wide-complex tachycardias with the objective of distinguishing ventricular tachycardia (VT) from a supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) with aberrant conduction. The algorithm detailed below, developed by Dr. James Niemann, presents an ED-centric approach favoring the diagnosis of the more life-threatening dysrhythmia. This approach recognizes that SVT with aberrancy is rare, particularly in patients with a history of cardiac disease where the likelihood of ventricular tachycardia exceeds 90%. The algorithm requires the use of only the most simple and easily-recalled criteria, and any point of failure along the algorithm lends to the universally-appropriate management as ventricular tachycardia.

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Regular, Wide-Complex Tachycardia

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Wide-Complex Tachycardia

  1. aVR: Is the initial deflection in aVR positive? If yes, then VT.
  2. Concordance: Is there concordance (monophasic with same polarity) in all of the precordial leads? If yes, then VT.
  3. AV Dissociation: Is there evidence of AV dissociation (fusion or capture beats)? If yes, then VT.
  4. Bundle-branch morphology: Is the QRS morphology in V1 and V6 consistent with either LBBB or RBBB? If no, then VT.

References

  1. Neimann J. Wide QRS Complex Tachycardias. Lecture. Harbor-UCLA Department of Emergency Medicine. 2014:1-19.
  2. Vereckei A, Duray G, Szénási G, Altemose GT, Miller JM. New algorithm using only lead aVR for differential diagnosis of wide QRS complex tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2008;5(1):89-98. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2007.09.020.
  3. Szelényi Z, Duray G, Katona G, et al. Comparison of the “real-life” diagnostic value of two recently published electrocardiogram methods for the differential diagnosis of wide QRS complex tachycardias. Acad Emerg Med. 2013;20(11):1121-1130. doi:10.1111/acem.12247.
  4. Brugada P, Brugada J, Mont L, Smeets J, Andries EW. A new approach to the differential diagnosis of a regular tachycardia with a wide QRS complex. Circulation. 1991;83(5):1649-1659.
  5. Lau EW, Pathamanathan RK, Ng GA, Cooper J, Skehan JD, Griffith MJ. The Bayesian approach improves the electrocardiographic diagnosis of broad complex tachycardia. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2000;23(10 Pt 1):1519-1526.
  6. B Garner J, M Miller J. Wide Complex Tachycardia – Ventricular Tachycardia or Not Ventricular Tachycardia, That Remains the Question. Arrhythm Electrophysiol Rev. 2013;2(1):23-29. doi:10.15420/aer.2013.2.1.23.
  7. Vereckei A. Current algorithms for the diagnosis of wide QRS complex tachycardias. Curr Cardiol Rev. 2014;10(3):262-276.
  8. Garmel GM. Wide Complex Tachycardias: Understanding this Complex Condition: Part 1 – Epidemiology and Electrophysiology. West J Emerg Med. 2008;9(1):28-39.
  9. Garmel GM. Wide Complex Tachycardias: Understanding this Complex Condition Part 2 – Management, Miscellaneous Causes, and Pitfalls. West J Emerg Med. 2008;9(2):97-103.
  10. Griffith MJ, Garratt CJ, Mounsey P, Camm AJ. Ventricular tachycardia as default diagnosis in broad complex tachycardia. The Lancet. 1994;343(8894):386-388.

Sinus Tachycardia

Brief History and Physical:

A young female with a history of schizophrenia presents to the emergency department reporting hallucinations. She had been diagnosed with schizophrenia one year previously and was briefly admitted to a psychiatric hospital. She discontinued her anti-psychotic (risperidone) two months ago, and over the past week she reports increasingly prominent auditory and visual hallucinations.

She denies recent illness, vomiting/diarrhea, changes in urinary habits, new medications, alcohol or illicit substance use. She also denies chest pain, palpitations or shortness of breath.

Vital signs are notable for a heart rate of 148bpm and are otherwise normal (including core temperature). Detailed physical examination is normal except for a rapid, regular heart rate. Mental status examination demonstrated normal level of alertness and orientation, linear and cogent responses and occasional response to internal stimuli during which she appeared anxious.

Initial evaluation and management included a 12-lead ECG which showed sinus tachycardia. Multiple boluses of normal saline were initiated while awaiting laboratory workup.

ECG: Sinus Tachycardia

Presentation ECG demonstrates sinus tachycardia.

Update:

Laboratory studies were reviewed and unremarkable. Normal hemoglobin, normal chemistry panel, negative hCG, and negative toxicology screen. The patient remained persistently tachycardic with a heart rate ranging from 140-160bpm (again sinus tachycardia on 12-lead ECG). An atypical antipsychotic and anxiolytic were administered and additional studies were obtained. Serum TSH, troponin and D-dimer were normal and bedside ultrasound did not identify a pericardial effusion. The patient remained asymptomatic, reporting subjective improvement in anxiety and hallucinations. Psychiatry was consulted and the patient was placed in observation for monitoring of sinus tachycardia. Observation course was uneventful as the patient remained asymptomatic. Transthoracic echocardiography was normal. Psychiatry consultation recommended resumption of home anti-psychotic and outpatient follow-up. Tachycardia had improved but not resolved at the time of discharge (heart rate 109bpm) and the patient was instructed to follow-up with her primary care provider.

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Sinus Tachycardia

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Sinus Tachycardia

Any vital sign derangement is concerning and tachycardia may be associated with unanticipated death after discharge home1. The presence of tachycardia suggests one of several categories of hemodynamic, autonomic, or endocrine/metabolic derangement.

Demand for increased cardiac output

A perceived demand for increased cardiac output will prompt chronotropic (and inotropic) amplification before hypotension develops. Causative etiologies include: volume depletion (from hemorrhage, gastrointestinal or renal losses), distributive processes (such as infection), obstruction (pulmonary embolus, or pericardial effusion with impending tamponade), or tissue hypoxia (anemia or lung disease).

Autonomic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system disturbances induced by stimulant, sympathomimetic or anti-cholinergic use, or withdrawal of certain agents such as ethanol or beta-blockers may be at fault.

Endocrine and other causes

Hyperthyroidism and pheochromocytoma should be considered, and as diagnoses of exclusion: anxiety, pain, or inappropriate sinus tachycardia2.

Evaluation:
Core temperature
CBC
Troponin
D-dimer
Bedside cardiac ultrasound
Urine toxicology screen
Ethanol level
TSH/T4

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Narrow-Complex Tachycardia3,4,5,6

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Narrow-Complex Tachycardia

References:

  1. Sklar DP, Crandall CS, Loeliger E, Edmunds K, Paul I, Helitzer DL. Unanticipated Death After Discharge Home From the Emergency Department. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49(6):735-745. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2006.11.018.
  2. Olshansky B, Sullivan RM. Inappropriate sinus tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(8):793-801. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.07.074.
  3. Yusuf S, Camm AJ. Deciphering the sinus tachycardias. Clin Cardiol. 2005;28(6):267-276.
  4. Katritsis DG, Josephson ME. Differential diagnosis of regular, narrow-QRS tachycardias. Heart Rhythm. 2015;12(7):1667-1676. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2015.03.046.
  5. Bibas L, Levi M, Essebag V. Diagnosis and management of supraventricular tachycardias. CMAJ. 2016;188(17-18):E466-E473. doi:10.1503/cmaj.160079.
  6. Link MS. Clinical practice. Evaluation and initial treatment of supraventricular tachycardia. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(15):1438-1448. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1111259.

ECG Guide: Pediatrics

ECG Standard

  • Full standard: no adjustment
  • Half-standard: commensurate reduction in amplitude (usually 50%)
  • Mixed: reduction in amplitude of precordial leads

Atrial Abnormalities

Right Atrial Abnormality (P pulmonale)
Peaked P-wave in II (>3mm from 0-6mo or >2.5mm >6mo)
Causes: right atrial volume overload, ASD, Ebstein, Fontan
Left Atrial Abnormality (P mitrale)
Wide, notched P-wave in II or biphasic in V1
Causes: MS, MR

Axis

  • Anatomical dominance of right ventricle until approximately 6mo
  • RAD normal
  • eRAD suggests AV canal defect

T-waves

  • 1st week of life: Upright
  • Adolescent: Inverted
  • Adult: Upright

Ventricular Hypertrophy

Right Ventricular Hypertrophy
R-wave height >98% for age in lead V1
S-wave depth >98% for age in lead V6
T-wave abnormality (ex. upright in childhood)
Causes: pHTN, PS, ToF
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy
R-wave height >98% for age in lead V6
S-wave depth >98% for age in lead V1
Adult-pattern R-wave progression in newborn (no large R-waves and small S-waves in right precordial leads)
Left-axis deviation
Causes: AS, coarctation, VSD, PDA

Examples


Normal Neonatal ECG

  • 2mo old
  • RAD
  • Inverted T-waves (normal)
  • Tall R-waves in V1-V3


Extreme Axis Deviation

  • Neonate with Down syndrome
  • Isoelectric in I, Negative in aVF negative in II  mean QRS vector -87°
  • Extreme RAD suggestive of AV canal defect


LVH:

  • Unrepaired Coarctation
  • Deep S-wave in V1 (>98%)
  • Tall R-wave in V6 (>98%)


RVH:

  • 10 year-old boy with pulmonary Hypertension
  • RAD after expected age for normal RAD
  • Tall R-waves in V1 (>98%)
  • Deep S-wave in V6 (>98%)


STEMI

  • ALCAPA (anomalous origin of the left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery): coronary artery arises anomalously from the pulmonary artery; as pulmonary arterial pressure falls during the first 6 months of infancy, prograde flow through the left coronary artery ceases and may even reverse.
  • HLHS (hypoplastic left heart syndrome): coronary arteries are perfused from a hypoplastic, narrow aorta that is susceptible to flow disruption
  • Orthotopic heart transplant with allograft vasculopathy
  • Kawasaki: coronary artery aneurysm with subsequent thrombosis


Benign early repolarization

  • 14 year-old male
  • Concave ST-segment elevation


Left Atrial Abnormality:

  • 9mo female with mitral insufficiency
  • Broad biphasic P-wave in V1
  • Tall, notched P-wave in II


Prolonged QT interval

  • 18-year-old female
  • Familial long QT syndrome and a history of cardiac arrest


WPW:

  • Delta wave, shortened PR interval

References

  1. O’Connor M, McDaniel N, Brady WJ. The pediatric electrocardiogram. Part I: Age-related interpretation. Am J Emerg Med. 2008;26(2):221-228. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.08.003.
  2. Goodacre S, McLeod K. ABC of clinical electrocardiography: Paediatric electrocardiography. BMJ. 2002;324(7350):1382-1385.
  3. O’Connor M, McDaniel N, Brady WJ. The pediatric electrocardiogram Part II: Dysrhythmias. Am J Emerg Med. 2008;26(3):348-358. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.07.034.
  4. O’Connor M, McDaniel N, Brady WJ. The pediatric electrocardiogram Part III: Congenital heart disease and other cardiac syndromes. Am J Emerg Med. 2008;26(4):497-503. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.08.004.
  5. Schwartz P. Guidelines for the interpretation of the neonatal electrocardiogram. Eur Heart J. 2002;23(17):1329-1344. doi:10.1053/euhj.2002.3274.

ECG Guide: Part II

STEMI

STEMI

  • ST-segment elevation ≥ 1mm in two contiguous leads
  • : ≥ 2mm V2-V3
  • : ≥ 1.5mm V2-V3

Posterior STEMI

  • ST-segment depression V1-V3 Posterior ECG
  • ST-segment elevation ≥ 0.5mm in V7-V9

Sgarbossa Criteria

  • Evaluation for STEMI in LBBB or paced rhythm
  • Normal: ST-segment discordant with QRS

    • QRS associated with ST-segment depression
    • QRS associated with (commensurate) ST-segment elevation
  • Score ≥ 3 98% specific for MI

Elevation

  • Concordant ST-segment elevation ≥ 1mm in any lead (5 points)

Depression

  • Concordant ST-segment depression ≥ 1mm in V1-V3 (3 points)

Discordant Elevation

  • Discordant ST-segment elevation ≥ 5mm in any lead (2 points)

Modified Sgarbossa Criteria

  • ST:S ratio ≥ 0.25 in any lead
  • Presence of any criterion is positive

Other Causes of ST-segment Elevation

Benign Early Repolarization

  • Concave ST-segment elevation
  • Notch at J-point
  • Asymmetric T-waves (steeper descent)

Pericarditis

  • Diffuse ST-segment elevation (except aVR)
  • PR-segment depression
  • Ratio: ST-elevation to T-wave amplitude ≥ 0.25 in V6 suggests pericarditis

LVH Strain

  • ST-segment elevation in V1-V3 in the setting of LVH

LV Aneurysm

  • Q-waves with ST-segment elevation in precordial leads

Ischemia and Prior Infarcts

Wellens: Type A

Wellens: Type B

Q-waves

  • ≥ 40ms duration
  • Depth ≥ 25% of R-wave height

Syncope

ARVD

  • Epsilon wave

Brugada Syndrome: Type 1

  • Type 1: Coved ST-segment elevation

Brugada Syndrome: Type 2

  • Type 2: Saddle-back ST-segment elevation

HCM

  • Deep, narrow Q-waves

Wolff-Parkinson-White

  • Shortened PR-interval
  • Delta-wave

Other

Atrial Abnormalities

  1. Normal
  2. RAA: P-wave amplitude > 2.5mm in inferior leads
  3. LAA: P-wave duration increased (terminal negative portion >0.04s), amplitude of terminal negative component >1mm below isoelectric line in V1

Left Bundle Branch Block


  • QRS duration > 0.12s (3 boxes)
  • Broad or notched R-wave with prolonged upstroke in I, aVL, V5, V6
  • Associated ST-segment depression and T-wave inversion
  • Reciprocal changes in V1, V2 (deep S-wave)
  • Possible LAD

Right Bundle Branch Block


  • QRS duration > 0.12s (3 boxes)
  • RSR’ in V1, V2
  • Reciprocal changes in I, aVL, V5, V6 (deep S-wave)

Axes

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Bradycardia

Brief H&P:

A 38 year-old male with no medical history presents to the emergency department with abdominal pain. He had one episode each of non-bloody emesis followed by watery, non-bloody diarrhea and cited several sick contacts at home with similar symptoms. Vital signs were notable for bradycardia with a heart rate ranging from 38-46bpm though he was normotensive. The examination including abdominal examination was benign. A 12-lead electrocardiogram was obtained which demonstrated sinus bradycardia. The patient was asymptomatic during episodes of bradycardia and his heart rate responded appropriately during activity and on further history reported that he was an endurance athlete and runs multiple marathons each year. He was discharged after symptomatic improvement with anti-emetics.

Bradycardia 1

  • Definition: heart rate <60bpm
  • Sinus rhythm: upright P-wave in I, II, aV; inverted P-wave in aVR

Electrocardiographic Findings 1-4

  • Sinus bradycardia
    • Potentially asymptomatic and present in healthy individuals
  • Sinoatrial node dysfunction (sick sinus syndrome, SSS) 5,6
    • Sinus bradycardia
    • Sinus arrest
    • Tachy-brady syndrome (sinus bradycardia/arrest interspersed with SVT)
  • Atrioventricular block
    • 1st degree: PR prolongation, rarely symptomatic
    • 2nd degree: Intermittent interruption of conduction of atrial impulses to ventricles
      • Type 1: progressive PR prolongation leading to interrupted conduction
      • Type 2: fixed PR interval with interrupted conduction
    • 3rd degree: atrioventricular dissociation
  • Slow atrial fibrillation
    • Irregular RR interval without recognizable P-wave

Epidemiology7

  • Analysis of 277 patients presenting to the emergency department with “compromising” bradycardia.
  • Symptoms
    • Syncope (33%)
    • Dizziness (22%)
    • Angina (17%)
    • Dyspnea/Heart Failure (11%)
  • ECG
    • High-grade AV block (48%)
    • Sinus bradycardia (17%)
    • Sinus arrest (15%)
    • Slow atrial fibrillation (14%)
  • Cause
    • Primary (49%)
    • Drug (21%)
    • Ischemia/Infarction (14%)
    • Pacemaker failure (6%)
    • Intoxication (6%)
    • Electrolyte disorder (4%)

Important Historical Features8,9

  • Fever/travel
  • Chest pain
  • Cold intolerance, weight gain
  • Headache, AMS, trauma
  • Abdominal pain/distension
  • Medication changes

Important Examination Findings8,9

  • Perfusion (temperature, capillary refill)
  • Presence of fistula or hemodialysis catheter
  • Existing device (malfunction)

Workup8,9

  • ECG
  • Continuous telemetry monitoring
  • Labs
    • Potassium
    • Digoxin level
    • TFT
    • Infection titers (RPR, Lyme)
    • Cardiac enzymes

Management8,10

  • Unstable
    • Airway
    • Atropine 0.5mg IV q3-5min (maximum 3mg)
    • Dopamine/epinephrine infusion
    • Temporary pacemaker (transcutaneous, transvenous) with blood-pressure preserving sedation
    • Admission and evaluation for permanent pacemaker placement
  • Stable (outpatient evaluation)
    • Event monitor
    • Stress test (chronotropic incompetence)

Algorithm for the Evaluation and Management of Bradycardia

Algorithm for the evaluation and management of bradycardia

References

  1. Mangrum JM, DiMarco JP. The evaluation and management of bradycardia. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(10):703-709. doi:10.1056/NEJM200003093421006.
  2. Ufberg JW, Clark JS. Bradydysrhythmias and atrioventricular conduction blocks. Emergency Medicine Clinics of NA. 2006;24(1):1–9–v. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2005.08.006.
  3. Hayden GE, Brady WJ, Pollack M, Harrigan RA. Electrocardiographic manifestations: diagnosis of atrioventricular block in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2004;26(1):95-106. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2003.10.001.
  4. Da Costa D, Brady WJ, Edhouse J. Bradycardias and atrioventricular conduction block. BMJ. 2002;324(7336):535-538.
  5. Semelka M, Gera J, Usman S. Sick sinus syndrome: a review. Am Fam Physician. 2013;87(10):691-696.
  6. Ewy GA. Sick sinus syndrome: synopsis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(6):539-540. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2014.05.029.
  7. Sodeck GH, Domanovits H, Meron G, et al. Compromising bradycardia: management in the emergency department. Resuscitation. 2007;73(1):96-102. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2006.08.006.
  8. Deal N. Evaluation and management of bradydysrhythmias in the emergency department. Emergency Medicine Practice. 2013;15(9):1–15–quiz15–6.
  9. Demla V, Rohra A. Emergency Department Evaluation and Management of Bradyarrhythmia. Hospital Medicine Clinics. 2015;4(4):526-539. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehmc.2015.06.009.
  10. Brady WJ, Harrigan RA. Evaluation and management of bradyarrhythmias in the emergency department. Emergency Medicine Clinics of NA. 1998;16(2):361-388.

Wellens Syndrome

Case Presentation

49M with a history of hypertension who presented to his primary physician for routine follow-up and was referred to the ED for an abnormal ECG. He denied chest pain, shortness of breath, or any limitation to baseline exercise tolerance. His vital signs were notable for systolic hypertension and his examination was unremarkable. A chest x-ray showed no acute cardiopulmonary findings. His initial ECG demonstrated a biphasic T-wave in V2 and deep, symmetric T-wave inversions in V3-V6. His initial serum troponin was markedly elevated at 3.499. He was admitted and urgent coronary angiography revealed proximal LAD stenosis (70%), mid-LAD stenosis (85%) and 1st right posterolateral stenosis (85%) which were stented. He was discharged on post-procedure day one and has remained asymptomatic at outpatient follow-up.

Presentation ECG
Presentation ECG

Presentation ECG

Biphasic T-wave in V2, deep and symmetric T-wave inversions in V3-V4

Post-Catheterization ECG
Post-Catheterization ECG

Post-Catheterization ECG

Resolution of biphasic T-wave and T-wave inversions

History1

Initially described in 1982 where a subset of patients who did poorly with medical management of “impending myocardial infarction” (essentialy unstable angina) were found to have characteristic ECG changes. These patients were noted to be at increased risk for extensive anterior wall myocardial infarctions due to proximal LAD stenosis.

Wellens ECG patterns

Criteria2,3

  1. History of chest pain
  2. Normal or slightly-elevated cardiac enzymes
  3. No precordial Q-waves
  4. Isoelectric or <1mm ST-segment elevation
  5. Pattern present in pain-free state
  6. Type A (25%): Biphasic T-wave in V2/V3
  7. Type B (75%): Deep, symmetrically inverted T-waves in V2/V3

Clinical Significance3

Wellens Syndrome (or LAD coronary T-wave syndrome) represents a “pre-infarction” stage of coronary artery disease manifested by critical LAD stenosis. The natural history includes progression to extensive anterior wall myocardial infarction, often associated with severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction, cardiogenic shock and death. These changes may be mistaken for “non-specific” T-wave changes (which in the presence of a non-concerning history and typically non-elevated cardiac markers) may lead providers to inappropriate dispositions such a stress testing which is contraindicated. Recognition of this pattern and its appropriate management (urgent coronary angiography) is critical.

Case Summary

The case presented above is atypical. The patient had no history of chest pain and cardiac enzymes were significantly elevated – two features which are uncommon in Wellens Syndrome. However, the patient’s elevated cardiac biomarkers led to admission and angiography with identification of the characteristic proximal LAD stenosis (and other disease).

References:

  1. de Zwaan C, Bär FW, Wellens HJ. Characteristic electrocardiographic pattern indicating a critical stenosis high in left anterior descending coronary artery in patients admitted because of impending myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1982;103(4 Pt 2):730-736.
  2. Tandy TK, Bottomy DP, Lewis JG. Wellens’ syndrome. YMEM. 1999;33(3):347-351.
  3. Rhinehardt J, Brady WJ, Perron AD, Mattu A. Electrocardiographic manifestations of Wellens’ syndrome. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2002;20(7):638-643. doi:10.1053/ajem.2002.34800.
  4. Mead N, O Keefe K. Wellen′s Syndrome: An Ominous EKG pattern. J Emerg Trauma Shock. 2009;2(3):206– doi:10.4103/0974-2700.55347.
  5. Kannan L, Figueredo VM. Images in clinical medicine. Wellens’ syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(1):66. doi:10.1056/NEJMicm1400946.

Nonsustained Ventricular Tachycardia

Case 1

64M with a history of HFrEF (LVEF 20-25%), CAD, AICD (unknown indication), COPD, CKD III presenting with gradual onset shortness of breath, progressive bilateral lower extremity edema.
Examination consistent with severe acute decompensated heart failure presumed secondary to left ventricular dysfunction.
Telemetry monitoring with multiple episodes of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia.

In the ED, the patient developed worsening respiratory failure despite initiation of therapy, requiring endotracheal intubation. Continuous cardiac monitoring revealed persistent salvos of NSVT, progressing to slow ventricular tachycardia without device intervention.
Device interrogation revealed multiple events, 3 shocks, several ATP’s over the recorded period.

Evaluation and Management:

  • NSVT with known (severe) ischemic heart disease
  • For repetitive monomorphic ventricular tachycardia: amiodarone, beta-blockade (if tolerated), procainamide (IIA, C)1

ECG’s

ECG 1
ECG 1

ECG 1

Non-specific IVCD, LAA, VPC

ECG 2
ECG 2

ECG 2

VT initiated by fusion complex

Case 2

31F with autoimmune polyglandular syndrome (adrenal, thyroid and endocrine pancreatic insufficiency), presenting with fever and cough.
Evaluation consistent with sepsis presumed secondary to pulmonary source.
Telemetry monitoring initially with ventricular bigeminy, then nonsustained ventricular tachycardia.

In the ED, the patient developed pulseless ventricular tachycardia – apparently polymorphic. Chest compressions and epinephrine produced return of spontaneous circulation with recovery to baseline neurologic function.
ECG revealed prolonged QTc and chemistry panel notable for critical hypokalemia/hypomagnesemia.

Evaluation and Management:

  • NSVT progressing to VT
  • Initially attributed to electrolyte disturbances. However, serial ECG’s continued to show prolonged QTc (possibly acquired, home medications included metoclopramide and erythromycin). Early echocardiography demonstrated global hypokinesis with EF 30-35% attributed to severe sepsis and recurrent defibrillation. Cardiac CT after resolution of acute illness showed persistently depressed ejection fraction without coronary atherosclerosis. The presence of NICM associated with malignant dysrhythmias warranted ICD placement.
  • Cardioversion for hemodynamic compromise (I, B), B-blockade (I, B), amiodarone if no LQTS (I, C), urgent angiography if ischemia not excluded (I, C)1
  • Correction of electrolyte abnormalities (specifically hypokalemia) may decrease progression to VF.2

ECG’s

ECG 1
ECG 1

ECG 1

Ventricular bigeminy

ECG 2
ECG 2

ECG 2

Long-QT

VT on Telemetry
VT on Telemetry

VT on Telemetry

Non-sustained ventricular tachycardia noted on telemetry monitoring

Definition3,4

  • > 3-5 consecutive beats originating below the AV node
  • Rate > 100bpm
  • Duration <30s

Epidemiology3,5

  • Occurs in 0-4% of ambulatory patients
  • Increased frequency in males and with increasing age

    • In some patients, NSVT is associated with an increased risk of sustained tachyarrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. In others it is of little prognostic significance.6,7,8

Evaluation

In all patients:
History: including arrhythmogenic medications/substances, pertinent family history
Physical examination
ECG/CXR
TTE
In selected patients:
Exercise testing
Advanced imaging (CT/C-MR)
Electrophysiologic studies
Genetic testing

NSVT in the absence of structural heart disease

NSVT in Idiopathic Ventricular Tachycardia

Ventricular outflow arrhythmias:
RVOT: 70-80%, LBBB pattern
LVOT: 20-30%, RBBB pattern
Mechanism:
Adrenergically mediated
Occur during exercise, resolve as heart-rate increases, recur during recovery
Management:
Exclude arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (imaging, myocardial biopsy)
If symptomatic, beta-blockade, ± IC anti-arrhythmic, CCB (verapamil) for ILVT
Prognosis:
Good, rare tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy, rare SCD

NSVT in Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia

Mechanism
LQTS (acquired or inherited)
Familial catecholaminergic polymorphic VT
Management
Symptomatic (ex. syncope, cardiac arrest): ICD
Asymptomatic QTc > 550ms: consider ICD
Prognosis
Increased risk SCD

Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy

Mechanism
Fibrosis, fibro-fatty replacement of myocardium in RVIT/RVOT/RV apex
May occur with only subtle structural abnormalities of the right ventricle
LBBB morphology
Management
Anti-arrhythmics of limited utility
Catheter ablation, ICD backup
Prognosis
Increased risk SCD

NSVT with apparent structural heart disease1

Hypertension and LVH

Mechanism
Stretch-induced abnormal automaticity
Fibrotic tissue
Presence of NSVT correlates with degree of hypertrophy and subendocardial fibrosis
Management
Evaluation for ischemic heart disease
Aggressive medical management of hypertension (including beta-blockade)
Prognosis
Unclear

Valvular Disease

Mechanism
High incidence in AS, severe MR (25%)
Mechanical stress from dysfunctional valvular apparatus
Management
Beta-blockade if symptomatic
Prognosis
No evidence that NSVT is an independent predictor of SCD.

Ischemic Heart Disease9-14

Mechanism
Monomorphic VT associated with re-entry at the borders of ventricular scars
Ischemia induces polymorphic NSVT/VF
Management
Revascularization, beta-blockade, statin, ACE/ARB
MADIT I, MUSTT: ICD for ICM LVEF <40%, NSVT, EPS inducible VT
MADIT II, SCD-HeFT: ICD for moderate-to-severe LV dysfunction irrespective of NSVT or EPS findings
Prognosis
NSTEMI with NSVT >48h after admission 2x risk SCD (MERLIN-TIMI 36)
STEMI with NSVT common, not as predictive of ACM or SCD as LVEF (CARISMA)
NSVT <24h after admission for NSTEMI/STEMI not of prognostic significance.

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

Mechanism
Genetic myocardial disease
Myocyte disarray, fibrosis, ischemia result in arrhythmogenic substrate
Management
Restriction of physical activity
ICD (NSVT, LV thickness, FH SCD, syncope, abnormal BP response to exercise)
Beta-blockade, anti-arrhythmic for symptoms
Prognosis
Increased risk SCD (1% annual)

Other Conditions

  • Non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy
  • Giant-cell myocarditis
  • Repaired TOF
  • Amyloidosis
  • Sarcoidosis
  • Chagas cardiomyopathy

Algorithm for the Evaluation of NSVT1

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Nonsustained Ventricular Tachycardia

References

  1. Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death–executive summary: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death) Developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(17):2099–2140. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehl199.
  2. Higham PD, Adams PC, Murray A, Campbell RW. Plasma potassium, serum magnesium and ventricular fibrillation: a prospective study. Q J Med. 1993;86(9):609–617.
  3. Katritsis DG, Zareba W, Camm AJ. Nonsustained ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(20):1993–2004. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.12.063.
  4. Katritsis DG, Camm AJ. Nonsustained ventricular tachycardia: where do we stand? Eur Heart J. 2004;25(13):1093–1099. doi:10.1016/j.ehj.2004.03.022.
  5. Wellens HJ. Electrophysiology: Ventricular tachycardia: diagnosis of broad QRS complex tachycardia. Heart. 2001;86(5):579–585.
  6. Buxton AE, Lee KL, Fisher JD, Josephson ME, Prystowsky EN, Hafley G. A randomized study of the prevention of sudden death in patients with coronary artery disease. Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(25):1882–1890. doi:10.1056/NEJM199912163412503.
  7. Jouven X, Zureik M, Desnos M, Courbon D, Ducimetière P. Long-term outcome in asymptomatic men with exercise-induced premature ventricular depolarizations. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(12):826–833. doi:10.1056/NEJM200009213431201.
  8. Udall JA, Ellestad MH. Predictive implications of ventricular premature contractions associated with treadmill stress testing. Circulation. 1977;56(6):985–989.
  9. Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1989;321(6):406–412. doi:10.1056/NEJM198908103210629.
  10. Goldstein S. Propranolol therapy in patients with acute myocardial infarction: the Beta-Blocker Heart Attack Trial. Circulation. 1983;67(6 Pt 2):I53–7.
  11. Moss AJ. MADIT-I and MADIT-II. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2003;14(9 Suppl):S96–8.
  12. Moss AJ, Hall WJ, Cannom DS, et al. Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(26):1933–1940. doi:10.1056/NEJM199612263352601.
  13. Buxton AE, Lee KL, Fisher JD, Josephson ME, Prystowsky EN, Hafley G. A randomized study of the prevention of sudden death in patients with coronary artery disease. Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(25):1882–1890. doi:10.1056/NEJM199912163412503.
  14. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB, et al. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(3):225–237. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa043399.
  15. WikEM: Nonsustained Ventricular Tachycardia

Chest Pain

An Algorithm for the Evaluation of Chest Pain

Algorithm for the Evaluation of Chest Pain

NOTE: Algorithm revised in November, 2017. The prior version is no longer supported but remains available here.

Guided Lecture

EM Ed
Watch “Chest Pain: It’s Giving Me Angina” from EM Ed. In this lecture Dr. Celedon reviews the critical differential diagnosis for chest pain and how to safely and effectively work up patient’s with this challenging chief complaint.

References

  1. Brown, J. (2013). Chest Pain. In Rosen’s Emergency Medicine – Concepts and Clinical Practice (8th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 214-222). Elsevier Health Sciences.

Dyspnea

Causes of Dyspnea

Causes of Dyspnea

Findings in Selected Causes of Dyspnea

Condition History Symptoms Findings Evaluation
Anaphylaxis Exposure to allergen Abrupt onset, facial swelling Stridor, wheezing, hives  
PE Immobilization, malignancy, prior DVT/PE, surgery, OCP Abrupt onset, pleuritic chest pain Tachycardia, hypoxia ECG (RV strain)
CT PA, D-dimer
LE US (DVT)
Pneumonia Exposure, tobacco use Fever, productive cough Focal rales CXR
CBC
Blood/respiratory cultures
Pneumothorax Trauma, thin male Abrupt onset, chest pain Decreased BS, subQ emphysema, JVD and tracheal deviation if tension CXR
US
Fluid overload Dietary indiscretion, medication non-adherence Orthopnea, PND JVD, S3/S4, peripheral edema CXR
US
ECG
BNP
COPD/Asthma Tobacco use, personal/family history Progressive Retractions, accessory muscle use, wheezing CXR
US (distinguish from fluid overload)
Malignancy Tobacco use, weight loss Hemoptysis   CXR
CT Chest

References

  1. Braithwaite, S., & Perina, D. (2013). Dyspnea. In Rosen’s Emergency Medicine – Concepts and Clinical Practice (8th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 206-213). Elsevier Health Sciences.

Syncope

Causes of Syncope

Causes of Syncope

History

  • Rate of onset
  • Position at onset
  • Duration, rate of recovery
  • Preceding features

    • Obstruction: associated with exertion
    • Neurocardiogenic: associated with emotion, micturition, bowel movement, emesis, neck movement
  • Following features

    • Seizure: Postictal confusion
    • Hypotension: Initial VS
    • Associated trauma

Physical Examination

  • VS: rhythm, BP, temperature
  • HEENT: mucous membranes (laceration, dry), trauma, papilledema
  • CV: murmur (AS), rub (pericarditis), bruit (cerebrovascular disease), JVD (obstruction)
  • Lungs: crackles (CHF)
  • Abdomen: pulsatile mass (AAA)
  • Extremities: pulse discrepancy (dissection)
  • Neuro: focal findings (stroke, mass, seizure)

Evaluation

  • ECG: arrhythmia (PR, QT, Brugada, unanticipated hypertrophy, RV strain, pericarditis)
  • Orthostatic VS
  • CBC: anemia
  • BMP: electrolyte abnormalities (hyponatremia, hyper/hypokalemia)
  • Glucose: hypoglycemia
  • Troponin: ischemia
  • B-hCG: ectopic
  • Utox: drugs
  • CXR: dissection
  • CT head: focal neurological findings
  • CT PA: concern for PE
  • US abdomen: AAA

San Francisco Syncope Rules (CHESS)

  • CHF
  • Hematocrit <30%
  • ECG abnormality
  • SBP <90mmHg
  • SOB

References

  1. De Lorenzo, R. (2013). Syncope. In Rosen’s Emergency Medicine – Concepts and Clinical Practice (8th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 135-141). Elsevier Health Sciences.

ECG Guide

The format of this article is atypical for the structure and concept of the website – but it’s always been about learning. Here is a simplified guide to ECG interpretation with a focus on the aspects I find more challenging to understand or recall.

Grid and Leads

The ECG grid
Limb leads
Precordial Leads

Axis

ECG axes

Atrial Enlargement

Atrial enlargement

Normal:
First portion of deflection is RA, second is LA
Right Atrial Enlargement:
P-wave amplitude > 2.5mm in inferior leads
Normal duration P-wave
Left Atrial Enlargement:
P-wave duration increased (terminal negative portion >0.04s)
Amplitude of terminal negative component >1mm below isoelectric line in V1

Ventricular Hypertrophy

Right Ventricular Hypertrophy:
Right axis deviation
Abnormal R-wave progression

  • Increased R-wave amplitude in leads overlying the right ventricle (V1)
  • Increased S-wave amplitude in leads overlying the left ventricle (V6)
Criteria

  • V1: R>S
  • V6: S>R
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy:
Left axis deviation
Increased R-wave amplitude in leads overlying the LV (I, aVL, V5, V6)
Increased S-wave amplitude in leads overlying the RV (V1)
Criteria:

  • Precordial Leads
    • R-wave in V5/V6 + S-wave in V1/V2 > 35mm
    • R-wave in V5 > 26mm
    • R-wave in V6 > 20mm
  • Limb Leads
    • R-wave in aVL > 11mm
    • R-wave in aVF > 20mm
  • Combined
    • R-wave in aVL + S-wave in V3 > 20mm (F), 28mm (M)

Secondary Repolarization Abnormalities

Secondary repolarization abnormality

  • Downsloping ST-segment depression
  • Asymmetric T-wave inversion

Bundle Branch Blocks

Left Bundle Branch Block

Left bundle branch block

  • QRS duration > 0.12s (3 boxes)
  • Broad or notched R-wave with prolonged upstroke in I, aVL, V5, V6
  • Associated ST-segment depression and T-wave inversion
  • Reciprocal changes in V1, V2 (deep S-wave)
  • Possible LAD

Right Bundle Branch Block

Right bundle branch block

  • QRS duration > 0.12s (3 boxes)
  • RSR’ in V1, V2
  • Reciprocal changes in I, aVL, V5, V6 (deep S-wave)

Hemiblocks

His-Purkinje system and hemiblocks (anterior fascicular block, posterior fascicular block)

Other Blocks

  • Non-specific intraventricular conduction delay: QRS >0.10s without BBB
  • Incomplete BBB: LBBB/RBBB pattern with non-prolonged QRS
  • Bifascicular block: RBBB + LAFB/LPFB (by axis deviation)

Ischemia and Infarction

ECG changes associated with ischemia and infarction

  1. Hyperacute T-waves
  2. T-wave inversion: Symmetric, compared to TWI associated with repolarization abnormalities
  3. ST-elevation: Unlike J-point elevation, ST-segment merges with T-wave
  4. Q-waves
    1. Duration > 0.04s
    2. Amplitude > 1/3 R-wave
    3. Normal in aVR

Coronary Artery Territories

Coronary artery territories

Distribution Coronary Artery Leads Reciprocal Changes
1. Inferior RCA, PDA II, III, aVF Anterior, Lateral
2. Lateral LCx I, aVL, V5, V6 Inferior
3. Anterior LAD V1-V6 Inferior
4. Posterior RCA Posterior Anterior (esp. V1)

External Links

Lactic Acidosis

HPI:

59F with a reported history of congestive heart failure, presenting with intermittent chest discomfort for three days.

She characterized this discomfort as “heartburn”, describing a mid-epigastric burning sensation radiating up her neck, not associated with exertion, lasting 1-2 hours and resolving with antacids. The patient has poor exercise tolerance at baseline and for the past several years has been able to ambulate only short distances around her home, and states that these symptoms have been worsening in the past week. She denies chest pain on exertion, orthopnea or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea. She states that she was diagnosed with congestive heart failure five years ago, but was never prescribed medications.

On further questioning, the patient reports several weeks of mouth and lip pain which has limited oral intake, though no dysphagia to solids or liquids. She otherwise denies fevers/chills, abdominal pain, nausea/vomiting, cough, changes in urinary or bowel habits.

In the emergency department, the patient was noted to have an elevated serum troponin, though ECG showed no changes of acute ischemia/infarction.

PMH:

  • Congestive heart failure

PSH:

  • None

FH:

  • Mother with diabetes
  • Father with MI at age 65

SHx:

  • 4-5 drinks of alcohol/day
  • No tobacco or drug use

Meds:

  • None

Allergies:

NKDA

Physical Exam:

VS: T 37.4 HR 106 RR 18 BP 145/82 O2 100% RA
Gen: Morbidly obese female, lying in bed, in no acute respiratory distress, speaking in complete sentences.
HEENT: Dry, cracked lips, slightly erythematous, otherwise moist mucous membranes, poor dentition. Mild scleral icterus. No cervical lymphadenopathy.
CV: Rapid rate, regular rhythm, normal S1/S2, II/VI systolic ejection murmur at LUSB, no radiation appreciated. No jugular venous distension.
Lungs: Clear to auscultation in posterior lung fields bilaterally, no crackles appreciated.
Chest: Well-circumscribed erythematous patch in folds beneath left breast, no underlying fluctuance, no significant tenderness to palpation. On contralateral breast, some hyperpigmentation but no erythema.
Abdomen: Obese, non-tender, non-distended. Patch of erythema below pannus, mildly tender to palpation.
Ext: Bilateral lower extremities with marked edema and overlying scaly plaques, some slightly ulcerated weeping serous fluid. Peripheral pulses are difficult to palpate, capillary refill difficult to assess.

Labs/Studies:

  • CBC: 11.1/11.1/34.5/212 (MCV 114.2)
  • BMP: 140/4.5/97/20/10/1.14/64
  • Anion Gap: 23
  • LFT: AST: 73, ALT: 26, AP: 300, TB: 4.6, DB: 2.1, Alb: 3.0, INR 1.3
  • BNP: 158
  • Troponin: 1.284
Sinus tachycardia, LVH, secondary repolarization abnormalities

Sinus tachycardia, LVH, secondary repolarization abnormalities

Imaging:

CT Pulmonary Angiography:
No evidence of central pulmonary embolism, thoracic aortic dissection, or thoracic aortic aneurysm. Evaluation of the peripheral vessels is limited due to motion artifact. No focal consolidation or pneumothorax.

CT Abdomen/Pelvis non-contrast:
No evidence of intra-abdominal abscess or definite source of infection. Marked hepatic steatosis.

CT Lower Extremity non-contrast:
Diffuse circumferential subcutaneous edema involving both lower extremities from the level of the mid thighs distally through the feet. There are bilateral subcutaneous calcifications which are likely venous calcifications in the setting of chronic venous stasis disease. There is some overlying skin thickening.

TTE:
There is moderate concentric left ventricular hypertrophy with hyperdynamic LV wall motion. The Ejection Fraction estimate is >70%. Grade I/IV (mild) LV diastolic dysfunction. No hemodynamically significant valve abnormalities.

US Abdomen:
Hepatomegaly, echogenic liver suggesting fatty infiltration. Moderately blunted hepatic vein waveforms suggesting decreased hepatic parenchymal compliance.

Assessment/Plan:

The patient was admitted to the cardiology service for management of NSTEMI and evaluation of undiagnosed CHF. She was started on a heparin continuous infusion. In addition, a CT pulmonary angiogram was obtained to evaluate for pulmonary embolism as an explanation of her progressive dyspnea on exertion. No PE, consolidation or effusion was identified.

Despite the patient’s reported history of congestive heart failure, there was no evidence that her symptoms were a result of an acute exacerbation with only a mildly elevated BNP but no jugular venous distension or evidence of pulmonary edema. The patient’s significant lower extremity edema was more suggestive of chronic venous stasis.

One notable laboratory abnormality that was explored was her elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis. Studies submitted included serum lactate, salicylates, osmolarity, CK, and urinalysis for ketonuria. This evaluation was notable for an elevated serum lactate of 13.2mmol/L and an arterial blood gas that showed adequate respiratory compensation (and no A-a gradient). Given the patient’s modest leukocytosis (with neutrophil predominance), and tachycardia, the concern for sepsis was increased though the source remained unclear. Prominent possibilities included a skin and soft-tissue infection vs. less likely intra-abdominal source though the patient’s physical examination was not suggestive of a process that would produce such a substantial lactic acidosis. Blood cultures were drawn and the patient was started on empiric antibiotics for the suspected sources. In addition, the patient was cautiously volume resuscitated given her reported history of CHF while pending a transthoracic echocardiogram to evaluate cardiac function. Additional imaging including CT abdomen/pelvis and lower extremities was obtained (though without contrast due to the patient’s recent exposure), and no obvious source was identified.

Over the next two days, the patient’s serum lactate downtrended to normal range, as did the serum troponin. A transthoracic echocardiogram showed an LVEF >70% with mild concentric hypertrophy and diastolic dysfunction. Blood and urine cultures were without growth.

Additional issues managed during the hospitalization included elevated serum transaminases (AST > ALT), conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and evidence of decreased hepatic synthetic function with hypoalbuminemia and elevated INR. Given the patient’s history of EtOH use, as well as other corroborating findings including macrocytic anemia, hypomagnesemia, folate and B12 deficiency, this was attributed to alcoholic hepatitis (discriminant function <32). Infectious hepatitis serologies were negative. The patient was started on nutritional supplements. Finally, the patient persistently complained of lip and oral mucosal pain. Examination was without discrete lesions but some mucosal redness was identified. Despite poor dentition, there was no evidence of abscess and HSV/HIV testing was negative. This was thought to be stomatitis caused by her identified nutritional deficiencies.

Differential Diagnosis of Elevated Serum Lactate 1,2

Differential Diagnosis of Elevated Serum Lactate

Algorithm for Evaluation of Acidemia 3,4

Algorithm for Evaluation of Acidemia

Algorithm for Evaluation of Alkalemia 3,4

Algorithm for Evaluation of Alkalemia

References:

  1. Fall, P. J., & Szerlip, H. M. (2005). Lactic acidosis: from sour milk to septic shock. Journal of intensive care medicine, 20(5), 255–271. doi:10.1177/0885066605278644
  2. Luft, F. C. (2001). Lactic acidosis update for critical care clinicians. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN, 12 Suppl 17, S15–9.
  3. Ingelfinger, J. R., Berend, K., de Vries, A. P. J., & Gans, R. O. B. (2014). Physiological Approach to Assessment of Acid–Base Disturbances. The New England journal of medicine, 371(15), 1434–1445. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1003327
  4. Ingelfinger, J. R., & Seifter, J. L. (2014). Integration of Acid–Base and Electrolyte Disorders. The New England journal of medicine, 371(19), 1821–1831. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1215672